FW 403 (001) Fall 2025 Urban Wildlife Management

Background and purpose: As urbanization grows, the overlap between cougar and human populations increases. Large carnivores are highly susceptible to habitat modification, because they tend to have low population density and wide ranging travel for their food requirements. The effects of urban development on the way cougars forage has rarely been studied and researched. This article investigated variation in cougar use of three prey types (synanthropes, ungulates, and rodents) along a wildland–urban gradient in western Washington to determine how urbanization affects the foraging ecology of this apex predator.

Methods: This study used trained dogs and cage traps to capture and radio-tag cougars throughout the 4450km^2 study site. They did this from 2004-2008 and again from 2013-2016. Once captured the animals were immobilized and given a physical examination and outfitted a GPS radio collar. Kill sites were located and prey identified. The surrounding urbanization of kill sites was measured as building density (structure per hectare). The diets of twenty individual cougars and their 568 kills were analyzed using statistical models.

Results: Firstly synanthropic prey use increased and odds of cougars preying on synanthropes (animals living in close association with humans) rose nearly fivefold with each additional building per hectare. However, only certain individual cougars specialized in synanthropes. Black-tailed deer and elk did remain the dominant prey throughout. Cougars remained to rely on ungulates as prey, which suggests that predator-ungulate systems can survive near human settlements. Additionally, as building density increased, kills of beaver and mountain beaver decreased, likely due to habitat loss and management practices reducing rodent presence. And it was also discovered that male cougars hunted rodents more often than females. Lastly, the study showed that some cougars deviated extensively in prey choice. For example, one male accounted for half the rodent predation.

Criticisms: Overall I thought this study was an insightful and interesting read. The research did have some limitations however. For one, building density was the only measure of urbanization, which oversimplifies the the complexity of human disturbance. Furthermore, the difference in collar technology between study periods may also have affected kill detection, making temporal comparisons less reliable. The lack of direct data on prey abundance makes it difficult to analyze whether dietary preferences of the cougar was a result of prey preference or prey abundance. Lastly, the limited sample size of twenty cougars makes it hard to apply this data across populations. Individual variation most likely strongly influenced results, especially if one male accounted for half the rodent kills. Future work could benefit from combining prey availability survey with kill site data to distinguish between preference and availability. Additionally standardized tracking technology, multiple measurements of urbanization, and a broadened sample size would yield more thorough results.

Reference:

Robins, C. W., Kertson, B. N., Faulkner, J. R., & Wirsing, A. J. (2019). Effects of urbanization on cougar foraging ecology along the wildland–urban gradient of western Washington. Ecosphere, 10(3), e02605.https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.2605

Background:

Black bears require a very high caloric intake leading up to the cold months when hibernate. They depend on a decent yield of soft and hard mast production in order to reach these nutritional needs, but sometimes hard or soft mast yields may drop too low to sustain Black bear populations. When this happens, bears need to forage for alternate food sources. Urbanization has been rapidly increasing which alters what these Black bear populations are exposed to. Being highly adaptive creatures, Black bears have come to use human garbage as an alternate food source. For urban bears, garbage can be easily accessed and can be high in calories.

This study was conducted in order to understand their foraging ecology in urban landscapes. The goal of the research is to find better solutions to mitigate human-wildlife conflict with Black bears.

Methods:

This study was conducted in the urban areas of Aspen, Colorado. During the months of May-August, researchers captured bears and fitted them with radio collars that were programed to report the bear’s locations every 30 minutes between May-September. From 2007-2010, researchers tracked 40 bears during May-September, which is their active season in Colorado. They backtracked to bear locations then inspected the area to see whether there is evidence of natural or anthropogenic foraging evidence. The area they would search at each back-tracked location had a 20 meter radius. They remotely downloaded data and backtracked to the most recent 24 hours of location data. They did not backtrack to the most recent location in order to avoid disturbing the bears, and they only used locations that were within 50 meters of a building.

Natural foraging evidence included animal carcasses, broken foliage, turned over rocks, ect. Anthropogenic foraging evidence included scattered garbage, visual observations of people present, broken limbs on landscape trees, broken windows, ect.

They used the backtracking data to summarize spatial and temporal patterns of the bears on natural and anthropogenic food sources.

Results:

Prehyperphagia refers to the months of May-July. Hyperphagia is when bears greatly increase their food intake prior to winter, during the months of August-September. Garbage was by far the most highly used anthropogenic food source. While garbage was consumed in high amounts every year, the poor years (years when less natural food sources were available) accounted for much higher levels of garbage consumption. The amount of garbage consumed during Hyperphagia was 5 greater during poor years.

The researchers randomly sampled 384 garbage containers and found that 76% of them were bear-resistant, but only 57% of the bear-resistant containers were properly secured.

Discussion:

The researchers determined that Black bears are most driven by cost vs reward when foraging. They put in the least amount of effort for the highest amount of caloric intake. They determined that the best next action is to decrease the reward bears receive when foraging in garbage, or increase the amount of effort put in. That would hypothetically steer bears towards foraging in wild land areas more often.

Critiques and takeaways:

Overall, I found the methods of this study to be fairly reliable in reducing potential bias and effectively answering the research question. The researchers were able to analyze 2 good years and 2 bad years. They were able to follow a decent sample size of bears, and collect data from a high number of feeding locations. They did, however, not dive deep into the dynamics within the wild land areas surrounding Apen, Colorado. This makes sense since the purpose of this study was to find answers specific to urban Black bear foraging behavior. This does raise a couple of questions that could aid in the understanding of urban Black bear foraging behavior though. Mostly, I think it’s worth researching Black bear population dynamics in the surrounding wild areas. Are these urban bears only urban because they are being pushed out of natural spaces by more dominant bears? Is there a lack of food sources available to sustain the whole Black bear population in these areas? How does hunting or a lack thereof play into the need for bears to travel into urban areas? To what degree are Black bears bothered by entering urban areas, and how bad do the alternatives need to be to push them there?

Those are a lot of questions, but I think it would be very interesting to conduct research that could answer some of these questions in wild land locations surrounding Aspen, Colorado in order to best relate results to one another.

Article:

URL: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/ES15-00137.1

Citation: Lewis, D. L., S. Baruch-Mordo, K. R. Wilson, S. W. Breck, J. S. Mao, and J. Broderick. 2015. Foraging ecology of black bears in urban environments: guidance for human-bear conflict mitigation. Ecosphere 6(8):141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/ES15-00137.1

Background and Purpose: With an exponentially growing populations comes infrastructure, accompanied by roads. The direct and indirect effects of roads have been and will continue to be an important conservation concern for species that utilize a network of connected habitats. Most all taxa are affected by roads, however, herpetofauna, especially freshwater turtle species are disproportionately affected by additive adult mortality.  Being an already vulnerable species group with high juvenile mortality and high adult and subadult survivorship, anthropomorphic stressors, such as road mortality, are concerning. Roads not only act as a barrier of dispersal—effecting gene flow and changing animal behavior, but they are also the leading causes of death for some species. For turtle species, roads disproportionally effect nesting females who travel large distances across a landscape gradient—leading to a shift in sex ratios. Species like the Spotted Turtle who use a combination of wetlands and upland habitat across the landscape are more at jeopardy than wetland species that facilitate life processes in a single wetland. 

Study Species: Spotted Turtles are a small, freshwater wetland species that inhabit a variety of wetland types including vernal pools, bogs, marshes, roadside ditches, and small streams. With an expansive range from southern Canada to northern Florida, Spotted Turtles are found in many environments across the Atlantic Coast. They are declining across their range, however, due to a variety of environmental stressors including poaching, habitat fragmentation, wetland loss, road mortality, pollution, illegal trade, and many more. Spotted Turtles have a short active season, being in the water from March through June, and then aestivating and nesting during the summer months. They have large home ranges, especially nesting females—using the upland habitat bordering their wetlands as areas for nesting, short migration between wetlands, and aestivating. With an increase in urbanization, these upland habitats are being highly fragmented by roads—leading to high rates of road mortality. Although there is much said in the literature about the impacts of roads on turtles, there have been few examining the impact of road mortality on freshwater turtle populations. 

Methods and Results:  The study site was located in central Maryland with a paved, two-lane road intersecting it. The average number of vehicles driving on the road was 2017 to 2087 vehicles per days. North of the road were four ephemeral wetlands totaling 6.94 hectares in area. To the south were three permanent and one ephemeral wetland. Spotted Turtles were caught by hand and collapsible mesh minnow traps. All turtles were marked and measured. Both sides of the road (including the northern and southern wetland complexes) were treated as separate populations. PVA’s or population viability analyses were used to simulate Spotted Turtle population trajectories under baseline conditions with added road mortality.  

After running the models, both the northern and southern populations showed negative growth rates. Without road mortality, extinction risk is about 20-24% in 150 years, however, with road mortality, extinction risk is greater than 90%. Every slight increase in adult mortality increases the rate of extinction. While road mortality itself was only around a 2% loss annually, it is catastrophic for these small, isolated Spotted Turtle populations. 

Importance: There are large data gaps into what we know about Spotted Turtles, specifically in more robust populations where they are more abundant. This study is one of the first studies to attempt to quantify the direct effects that roads have on freshwater turtle viability. Although Spotted Turtles suffer from a variety of environmental stressors as mentioned before, road mortality can dramatically reduce population viability.  Many of the isolated areas Spotted Turtles inhabit are now being affected by urban sprawl and increasing infrastructure. These once remote upland area are now surrounded by neighborhoods, and many of these wetland complexes have been segmented by roads. There have been other studies looking at road mortality on freshwater turtle populations but depending on the species and the current status and structure of their populations, even large starting populations may have high extinction probabilities. 

Future Work: In North Carolina, road mortality appears to be especially high in areas like the inner/outer banks where Spotted Turtle populations are more robust. In my research, I have noticed that rural areas with multiple wetland complexes seem to result in high road mortality rates in Spotted Turtles. Although these areas are not city centers, and you may not even consider them urban, the infrastructure necessary to support growing populations is there. Studies like these should be replicated across Spotted Turtles’ range. Given that these turtles inhabit such a broad variety of ecosystems, the replication of this study in more southern populations is pivotal. Slight differences in behavior across populations may yield different results related to road mortality. In North Carolina, our populations are more active during the Spring months, and towards the end of May females will begin traveling to nest. For some wetland species, like the Spotted Salamander, that make great migrations once a year to reproduce, people have collaborated with local departments of transportation to aid in these mass movements during the winter months. Although it may not be as realistic for Spotted Turtles, there are ways to mitigate road mortality. Because Spotted Turtles are considered a species of concern in some places across the United States and are listed as endangered through the IUCN, you would have to be careful not to reveal the exact locations of these populations due to poaching. Progress is currently being made to increase the detection of Spotted Turtles across their range through a Competitive State Wildlife Grant funded by USFWS. By increasing the amount of data we have on Spotted Turtles in general, we can make informed conservation decisions regarding road mortality and other stressors threatening their status. 

Reference: Howell, H. J., & Seigel, R. A. (2019). The effects of road mortality on small, isolated turtle populations. Journal of Herpetology, 53(1), 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1670/18-022