Overview

This study focuses on investigating the diet composition of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) living in urban areas in northern Japan. Red foxes rely on varying food sources, including several types of small mammals and fruits. This study suggests that the home range of urban foxes can be around 30 hectares, so they have a large area to forage for food in. This paper looked at the types of small mammals that the urban foxes were consuming by analyzing scat samples. The species of animals being consumed by urban foxes was determined by extracting DNA from the scat samples that were collected. The advantages of fecal DNA analysis include non-invasiveness, ease of collection, and high accuracy. The goal of this analysis is to understand the diet of urban red foxes in northern Japan, specifically what animals they are consuming.

Methods:

The ‘urban areas’ that were included in this study had to be considered densely inhabited districts by the Statistics Bureau of Japan. The ‘suburban areas’ in this study were areas that were in the city but outside of densely inhabited districts. One challenge for sample collection was distinguishing the scat of urban foxes from that of other species such as dogs. This was solved by using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to test for primers that were specific to red foxes. This allowed the researchers to ensure that their samples were actually coming from urban foxes. The researchers also had to develop PCR primers for the species they were testing for in the red fox scat. The wild species that had PCR primers developed for them were gray red-backed vole, Hokkaido red-backed vole, northern red-backed vole, large Japanese field mouse, small Japanese field mouse, brown rat, house mouse, Eurasian red squirrel, Siberian chipmunk, mountain hare, and sika deer. Additionally, the researchers also used PCR primers to test for the presence of livestock species in the urban fox scat (cattle, pig, and chicken). The development of the PCR primers for prey species was essential for allowing the researchers to analyze the scat samples from the urban foxes.

Results:

In total there were 110 scat samples collected, and 78 of them were determined to come from red foxes (these 78 were used for the analysis). The wild mammals that were tested for were found in 47.4% of the samples. The gray red-backed vole was the most commonly detected wild mammal species, and it was found in both urban and suburban samples. Other commonly detected species were the brown rat and the large Japanese field mouse. Interestingly, the mountain hare, house mouse, Hokkaido red-backed vole, northern red-backed vole, and small Japanese field mouse were not found in any of the samples that were collected. When looking at the dietary composition of livestock, chicken was most commonly found in the scat samples (56% of samples contained chicken). Pig was also commonly found in the samples (29% of samples contained pig). Although cattle were not found as commonly, the total frequency of livestock in the urban fox scat samples was 61.5%. Additionally, multiple prey species were found in 38% of the samples.

Reflection/Critiques:

Wild mammals play an important role in the diet of urban red foxes in the study area. The primary wild mammal prey species for urban foxes in this area was determined to be the gray red-backed vole. This was supported through wild mammals being found in 47.4% of samples and the gray red-backed vole being found in 30.2% of samples. Although it is possible that the urban foxes were feeding in different areas than where they were dropping feces, the researchers concluded that this was unlikely due to the home range size of the red foxes. The brown rat was also found to be an important dietary component for the urban foxes. This was likely due to the high abundance of this species in cities (brown rats can take advantage of the urban environment). Sitka deer was only found in one scat sample. This was likely from a scavenged carcass since sitka deer are a much larger mammal species. Overall, wild mammal species are an integral part of the diets of urban red foxes in the study area.

Livestock species were found in a larger percentage of the fecal samples for urban red foxes when compared to wild mammal species. According to this study, livestock species were found in 61.5% of the collected scat samples. This suggests that livestock species play a crucial role in supporting the diet of urban foxes. It is likely that this dietary component was primarily sourced from human garbage due to the urban location. The livestock species that was most commonly found in urban fox diets was chicken. This is likely due to it being frequently discarded in garbage. This area of Japan has higher average pork consumption when compared to cattle. This explains why pork was found more frequently in urban fox scat when compared to cattle. Overall, anthropogenic food sources are very important to the diets of urban red foxes in the study area.

The primary critique I have for this study is the relatively small sample size of urban red fox scat. The researchers only analyzed 78 scat samples. If the number of samples were increased, then the conclusions that the study found would be more reliable. The researchers could have greater confidence in the new discoveries regarding the dietary composition of urban red foxes in the study area. Although this would have required more input, the researchers had a reliable method to distinguish the red fox scat from other species.

Another critique for this study is the choice to collect samples without any way of identifying which individual fox they came from. This could have an impact on the data if multiple samples were collected from the same individual fox. It would be beneficial to have a method of quantifying the number of different individual foxes that contributed samples to the study. It would also be beneficial to know the number of samples that came from each individual fox. This would improve the analysis since the diet of each individual is variable and unique. Although this would improve the study, it is likely not practical. Monitoring individual foxes would be difficult, time consuming, and costly. It would also be difficult to attribute particular scat samples to individual foxes.

Reference:

Waga, D., Amaike, Y., Nonaka, N., & Masuda, R. (2025). Identification of mammal species preyed upon by urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Sapporo, Japan, determined by fecal DNA analysis. The Journal of veterinary medical science, 87(8), 960–965. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.25-0199

Overview

This study by J.M. Reed and colleagues, published in Urban Ecosystems, explores how urban development influences the presence and abundance of two amphibian species: the spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) and the wood frog (Rana sylvatica). Both species rely on temporary woodland pools, known as vernal pools, for breeding. Because amphibians are highly sensitive to environmental changes, they serve as indicators of ecosystem health. The researchers aimed to determine how surrounding land cover, such as forest area, impervious surfaces, and road proximity, affects amphibian occurrence and breeding success in human-altered landscapes.

Methods

Reed and his team surveyed 41 vernal pools in central Massachusetts that represented a range of surrounding land uses, from heavily forested to highly urbanized areas. They measured egg mass counts to estimate breeding abundance and recorded environmental factors including forest cover within 100–300 meters, hydroperiod, road density, and impervious surface area. To evaluate which factors most influenced amphibian presence, the researchers used logistic regression and stepwise model selection.

A key strength of the study was its use of GIS data to quantify the surrounding landscape, offering more precision than visual observation alone. However, one limitation was that data collection occurred during a single breeding season. The authors noted that year-to-year differences in rainfall and hydroperiod could influence amphibian breeding success, meaning a longer-term study might reveal additional trends or variability.

Results

The study found a clear negative relationship between urbanization and amphibian presence. Spotted salamanders were observed in 69 percent of pools with over 75 percent surrounding forest, but in fewer than 20 percent of pools where forest cover was below 25 percent. Wood frogs showed a similar pattern, though they appeared somewhat more tolerant of moderate development.

Road density within 100 meters of pools was one of the most consistent predictors of absence. Roads not only fragment habitats but also increase adult mortality as salamanders and frogs migrate to breeding sites. In addition, the amount of impervious surface near pools was strongly linked to lower abundance, likely due to disrupted hydrology and reduced water quality. The authors pointed out that even small increases in pavement or built infrastructure can lead to disproportionate ecological effects, illustrating how sensitive amphibians are to habitat loss and fragmentation.

Reflection / Critique

This study presents convincing evidence that urbanization substantially reduces amphibian populations, but there are several aspects that could have been expanded upon. While the authors recommend maintaining at least 30 to 50 meters of forest buffer around vernal pools, they do not provide practical guidance on how these recommendations might be implemented through zoning or conservation policy. Including examples of towns or municipalities that have successfully integrated amphibian habitat protection into land-use planning would have made the research more applied and actionable.

Another limitation is the lack of direct water quality data. The authors mention that pollution from runoff could influence amphibian populations, but they did not measure chemical variables such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or heavy metals. Without this information, it remains uncertain whether declines were driven primarily by habitat fragmentation or by contamination of breeding pools. Future studies combining both land-use and water chemistry analyses could paint a fuller picture of how urbanization impacts amphibians.

Even with these limitations, the study makes a valuable contribution to urban ecology. The finding that spotted salamanders virtually disappear when impervious cover exceeds 25 to 30 percent provides an important threshold for conservation planning. The authors also highlight how both landscape connectivity and small-scale features like forest buffers can make a major difference in sustaining amphibian populations.

Overall, this research offers a strong reminder that sustainable development must consider the needs of species that rely on small, seasonal, and easily overlooked habitats. Amphibians like the wood frog and spotted salamander are not just victims of habitat loss but also indicators of how human choices shape the health of entire ecosystems.

Reference:
Reed, J. M., et al. (2005). Urbanization Effects on Spotted Salamander and Wood Frog Presence and Abundance. Urban Ecosystems

The study “Sustainability Assessment on an Urban Scale: Context, Challenges, and Most Relevant Indicators” by Salati, Maryam; Bragança, Luis; and Mateus, Ricardo, published in 2022, addresses the lack of consistency in indicators used to assess sustainability in urban environments. The authors highlight this as a significant issue, noting that the wide variety of indicators currently used globally often lack connectivity, which hinders efforts to advance sustainability on a global scale. If urban sustainability assessments can become clearer, more consistent, and more practical, they could become widely accessible and accepted. Such a universal approach could help guide local and global policymaking, supporting environmental protection and establishing standards to improve the health of urban ecosystems, benefiting both nature and people.

I found this article particularly interesting because of its perspective on how urban biodiversity indicators and assessment tools are utilized. I was especially drawn to its strong belief in the potential for improving policymaking and fostering healthier urban ecosystems, which in turn can contribute to a more sustainable and unified world for both humans and wildlife.

This research article is strong in several key areas. Its topic is intuitive and demonstrates a clear need for a solution, which immediately underscores its relevance. The paper emphasizes the potential for meaningful change, arguing that a standardized set of indicators could be directly applied to policymaking to improve sustainability in communities globally. The study also does an excellent job of laying out a structured methodology for identifying standardized urban biodiversity indicators. It carefully reviews the most common and practical measures currently used worldwide, explains their relevance, and clearly justifies their inclusion in the proposed set of indicators. Another notable strength is the study’s ability to address sustainability across environmental, social, and economic dimensions in a fluid and integrated manner, demonstrating the interconnected nature of this topic and its significance across multiple facets of urban life. Additionally, the authors acknowledge the need for adaptability, noting that urban environments are highly diverse and constantly evolving. They recognize that the framework may have gaps and that ongoing adjustments may be necessary to respond to rapid global changes. Overall, this article demonstrates many strengths, from its methodological rigor to its holistic approach, making it a particularly compelling and valuable study.

Despite its strengths, the study does have some important limitations. The most significant limitation is the lack of real-world data or testing. The study relies entirely on analyses of four existing assessment tools to evaluate urban biodiversity indicators. While the selected indicators are commonly used and relevant, there is no empirical data to confirm that they are the most effective in practice. Another limitation is its narrow scope; by focusing on only four assessment systems, the study cannot claim to provide global representation, which is important given the diversity of urban environments around the world. I also found a tension in the study’s goal of simplifying and standardizing assessments in their effort to create a framework that is more accessible, the authors grouped indicators into broad categories. While this approach is useful for generalization, it risks overlooking location-specific details that may be crucial depending on the urban context. In my view, this represents a hopeful but somewhat oversimplified approach to standardizing indicators, which may limit its practical application across highly variable urban environments.

Nonetheless, I believe this study is of great scientific and cultural importance. While its limitations are significant and should be addressed in future research, the study effectively highlights the challenges of connecting scientific knowledge with policymaking on a global scale. It uses analytical methods to determine which indicators are most frequently used and relevant, providing a strong foundation for standardization efforts. This study is an important stepping stone toward improved sustainability for current and future urban biodiversity, and its findings have the potential to positively influence both research and policy. For these reasons, I found this study exceptionally useful and inspiring.

Reference:
Salati, M., Bragança, L., & Mateus, R. (2022). Sustainability assessment on an urban scale: Context, challenges, and most relevant indicators. Applied System Innovation, 5(2), 41. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5020041

Abstract: Due to hunting and habitat loss, wild turkeys in early America reached very low population sizes. In the last 50 years, America as a country has implemented different laws and regulations to attempt to increase the number of turkeys in the wild, which is working! With this exciting news, human interactions with turkeys in highly populated areas are a rising issue. Wild turkeys seem to be recolonizing in urban areas, specifically Washington, D.C.. Researchers aimed to determine which urban areas are most affected by wild turkey populations and how those wild turkeys are using the urbanized land.

Methods: 75 studies across Washington, D.C. were conducted. These studies were conducted in random green spaces, consisting mostly of parks and occasionally, a cemetery or golf course. Each of these points was 2 km apart, to ensure coverage. Multiple brands of trail cameras were deployed from July 2020 to November 2023 and were active 28.7 days per sampling. With 4 different sampling trials lasting 30-45 days each, these cameras observed assorted landscape features as well as turkey sightings. These landscape features include human population density, vegetation coverage, impervious coverage, and distance to roads or water. The final number of turkeys observed by the trail cameras was 2,656, showing up at 32 different sites.

Figure 1: “Location of the 75 sampling sites used to estimate wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) occupancy across the Washington, D.C. metropolitan region, USA (38.9072° N, 77.0369° W). The size of the circles represents the total number of wild turkey detections at each site from July 2020 to November 2023.”

Results: The result of this study was the sighting of 2,656 wild turkeys at 32 of 75 different sites. Of the sites, 29 were public parks, 2 were cemeteries, and 1 was a golf course. Wild turkeys were on average detected 22.9 days per season, being more detected in the spring. The results showed that the average wild turkey occupancy was 7% (95% CI = 0.04–0.10) across the region. Increased distance from roads and increased vegetation increased the probability of turkey presence, or positive correlations. Increased distance from water and decreased canopy height/vegetation coverage both reduced the number of turkeys present, or negative correlations. Overall, the data shows that turkeys favored areas close to water with moderate canopy coverage that is also away from roads/traffic.

Conclusions: Research shows that wild turkeys can survive successfully in urban green spaces, specifically ones that mimic the natural habitat of a wild turkey. These areas are near open water, are away from traffic, and have moderate canopy coverage from foliage. This leads to a possible management effort that involves reducing roads being paved in larger urban green spaces, focusing on keeping populations away from roadways, and creating patches of canopy coverage on smaller scales.

Critical Analysis: I think that this is a very well executed research article, and it is one of the first of its kind. The research shows a valuable insight on how wildlife adapts to urbanization, despite population increases. The method of collecting data was ingenuitive, ensuring minimal errors. Some limitations of this research is the area limit. Only conducting research in Washington, D.C., limiting applications to other areas. The occupancy rate being low (7%) also limits the use of the data in other areas.

Reference: Collins, M. K., Edwards, K. E., Bates, S., & Gallo, T. (2025). Returning neighbors: eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) occupancy in an urban landscape. Journal of Wildlife Management. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.70129

Overview

This study, published in Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (2023), looks at how non-native plants and “illegitimate” pollination behaviors affect hummingbird activity in urban environments. Urbanization often replaces native plants with non-native ones, which can change pollinator behavior and plant-animal interactions. The researchers wanted to figure out whether these non-native species still help sustain hummingbirds in cities, even when the birds aren’t directly pollinating the flowers.

Methods

The researchers surveyed urban landscapes to record the diversity of flowering plants and the frequency of hummingbird visits. They differentiated between legitimate interactions, where pollination could occur, and illegitimate ones, where hummingbirds accessed nectar without pollinating. Sites with varying proportions of native and non-native species were compared to determine how plant origin influenced hummingbird foraging behavior. The study also monitored flowering duration to evaluate how non-native plants extended nectar availability throughout the year.

Results

The findings revealed that non-native plants played a substantial role in sustaining urban hummingbird populations. These species often bloomed outside the flowering periods of native plants, effectively bridging resource gaps. Interestingly, even illegitimate visits still contributed to maintaining hummingbird presence, indicating that access to nectar, regardless of pollination success, supports pollinator persistence in cities. The study emphasized that plant diversity, rather than strict nativity, can strengthen urban ecological networks.

Reflection / Critique

I thought this was a really interesting study because it challenges the assumption that only native plants are valuable for supporting wildlife. The authors made a strong case for recognizing the role of non-native plants in maintaining biodiversity in cities, especially for specialized pollinators like hummingbirds. However, I wish they had gone into more detail about how these non-native plants might affect other pollinators or long-term ecosystem stability. It also would’ve been helpful if they compared data from different cities or regions to make their conclusions more generalizable. Overall, the paper was well done and brought up a thought-provoking point, that even “imperfect” ecological interactions can still have real value in human-dominated environments.

Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (2023). Non-native plants and illegitimate interactions are highly relevant for supporting hummingbird pollinators in the urban environment. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866723001966

Overview:

With urban wildlife already being an all too understudied field, research into dangers to these animals remains a pressing matter. One focus centralizes on how both domesticated and feral cats pose a threat to urban wildlife and the few species that can survive in a harsher environment separated from nature. When released into an outdoor environment, cats are skilled predators and will take on a wide variety of urban prey. When deciding on management to reduce further widescale loss of urban wildlife, many factor must be considered in how people will accept policies regarding restrictions on cats.

Methods:

In this article they only compiled findings of other studies to create a general guide for going about creating future policies. They listed 4 steps that outlined what should be considered before making any actions. First, ensure there are measures that need to be taken through scientific evidence. Without proof of a significant issue, large-scale policy changes shouldn’t be pushed out to the public. They stated that issues may arise with cat management as many instances are localized dangers and may not have the same effects in one area compared to another. Their second step was to determine how precautious they should be given the current state of the issue. Since there are so many risks in drawing conclusions combined with limited data, they deemed the study to demonstrate the need for strong precaution in all studies. Third, discuss what measures could be applied to aid in solving the problem. Ways to reduce urban wildlife kills by cats include predation deterrents like bells or electronic noises to give away stalking cats. There is also the method of sterilization or euthanasian of feral cats to prevent further spread of danger. Finally, the last step is to decide on what measures should be applied. This is where the most conflict occurs as the public will have a strong sway in what measures they can accept and what takes things too far past their comfort zone. Lethal measures for feral cats will generally be heavily fought as well as complete restrictions to the indoors. Finding ways to reduce the issue while not angering cat owners too much is the balance studies need to strive for.

Discussion:

Without much evidence in the study on cats interacting with urban wildlife, it can be very difficult to secure an approved plan that will greatly affect the number of predation attacks cats create. This is why the importance of precautionary measures can provide a plan of action using plausible reasoning from which scientists can then take action with more freedom to aid in predation prevention. By then framing these actions as small scale experiments, we can gain more data and evidence that can then help push for wider regulations that will do more good for urban species protection. Finally they find that consultation with the public is one of the last important steps. By talking with residents, they can see what limits are acceptable such as sterilization and warning noises. Using this they can also find where they’ll encounter heavier resistance in areas like euthanasia and limiting the space in which cats can roam. So while citizens’ opinions may not accurately represent cats’ impact on urban wildlife, we can use it to see what projects we should focus on for highest success of prevention alongside public support.

Critique:

Overall, the article does present good counterpoints to all their suggestions and recognizes where their methods will encounter public backlash. The use of precautionary methods is important in the studies of scientific research and an important topic to address when creating policies. However, the main issue I find with the article is that it possesses very little data of its own. The methods section has been heavily altered into more of a guide on scientific research based on results of other experiments. The article has no data of its own experimentation and no graphs to provide visual results that can be used to easily see changes in population from cat predation. The article has a solid understanding of the issue cats present to both diurnal and nocturnal forms of wildlife and provides methods to solve them. But like I stated before, it does not provide any substantial data showing how these changes have a material effect on the urban wildlife. While the article was written at a time where there was not much research on the subject it could have been greatly improved with data of its own to contribute to studies and its own claims. Alongside this addition of their own research study I would suggest adding graphs to convey their data as their only figure in the article is just a summary of the whole ‘methods’ section.

Reference:

Michael C. Calver, Jacky Grayson, Maggie Lilith, Christopher R. Dickman, Applying the precautionary principle to the issue of impacts by pet cats on urban wildlife, Biological Conservation, Volume 144, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1895-1901, ISSN 0006-3207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.015.

Urban trophic systems that involve mammals are a largely understudied field. Barriers to this research include the cost of conducting field observations or DNA analyses. Camera traps can be a cost-effective method to opportunistically record predator-prey interactions. Potential prey encounters can also be recorded with camera traps and used to build trophic networks. 

This study was conducted in Toronto, Canada, a highly urbanized area. The focal predator species were red foxes and coyotes because they have opportunistic diets and have adapted to thrive in urban areas. 33 motion-detecting cameras were placed at approximately knee height on trees and lamp posts along previously laid transects throughout the city from October 2020 to September 2021. Any image containing more than two animals was considered a predation event. Potential predation events were recorded as each species was detected on the same camera less than five minutes apart. This data was used to create bipartite networks that demonstrate the urban predator-prey interactions and potential interactions. Their results found a total of 43 combined predation events and 299 combined potential interactions for red foxes and coyotes. 

Images of recorded predation events by coyotes (uppers) and red foxes (lower)

The first thing this paper failed to address was the impact of COVID-19 protocols in urban areas on these predator-prey interactions. I suspect that over the course of the study, restrictions lessened, which would likely be associated with a decline in these interactions in urban areas, as we have discussed in class. Regarding the researchers’ methods, site-specific information should’ve been included in their analysis of interactions to develop a more intricate food web of the whole study area. I also think it would be important to note whether the prey or predator was detected first when documenting potential predator-prey interactions. The difference could be significant enough to remove some of the observations as potential interactions. Also, the researchers of this paper urge future researchers to consider the likelihood of a predation event in their analysis of potential encounter events, which could also result in a more detailed food web. 

Overview:

The title of the article I will be reviewing is “Greater consumption of protein-poor anthropogenic food by urban relative to rural coyotes increases diet breadth and potential for human–wildlife conflict”. This study focuses on the diet of an urban-adapted generalist species called Canis latrans, more commonly known as coyotes. This species has been increasingly present in urban environments, and this has led to dietary changes for urban coyotes. This study examines how these urban coyotes have adapted to consuming more anthropogenic food sources in their diet (bird seed, compost, pet food, trash, etc.). Although having a broad number of dietary sources can benefit coyotes, consuming these anthropogenic sources may lead to increased amounts of human-wildlife conflict in urban areas. Coyotes are very flexible when it comes to their dietary and environmental needs, so this explains why urban coyote populations have been increasing in recent years. In order to better understand the role of anthropogenic food sources in urban coyote diets and how these impact human-wildlife conflicts, this study compared the diets of urban and rural coyotes. It aimed to determine what kinds/amounts of anthropogenic food were part of urban coyote diets and how this impacted the prevalence of conflicts between urban coyotes and humans. 

Methods:

The diets of coyotes from several urban and rural areas of Canada were compared for this study. The researchers collected samples of coyote scat and hair to conduct the necessary analysis for this experiment. The scat samples were collected in a variety of areas that had either received reports of coyote sightings, had coyote tracks, or where radio-collared coyotes had been located. Several characteristics were utilized to distinguish the coyote scat from other similar species such as domestic dogs, wolves, or foxes. The items found in the scat were categorized to separate natural and anthropogenic food sources. The prevalence and relative abundance of each diet component were calculated for both the urban and rural coyotes. These comparisons were able to give an in-depth understanding of the differences between urban and rural coyote diets. 

The hair samples were collected for the purpose of performing stable isotope analysis. These samples were taken from coyotes that had known histories of having conflicts with people. This type of analysis was able to give an accurate and longer-term view of anthropogenic food consumption by the coyotes of interest. The hair samples were taken from coyotes that had been live-trapped as well as ones that had been killed for various reasons. In order for a coyote to be categorized as conflict-prone, it had to have received complaints from the public regarding its behavior. The bodily conditions of each coyote were observed at the time that the hair sample was retrieved, and each coyote was analyzed for disease (sarcoptic mange infestation). Once the hair samples were obtained, they were used to perform the stable isotope analysis. 

Results:

The analysis of scat samples found that urban coyotes had more diverse diets when compared to rural coyotes. This was true at both the population level and the individual level. It also showed that urban coyotes consumed anthropogenic food sources much more often than rural coyotes (26% of all urban coyote scat samples and <1% of all rural coyote scat samples). Additionally, urban coyotes consumed far less animals when compared to rural coyotes. However, urban coyotes did consume small mammals more frequently than rural coyotes. 

Figure 2 Diet diversity of urban coyote scats from two urban (black bars) and two rural sites (white bars). We measured population diet diversity by calculating Shannon’s H′ index from pooled scats (a) and measured individual diet breadth using the number of species per scat (b). Bars show mean values and error bars indicate standard error.

Figure 3 Differences in prey use in urban (black bars) and rural (white bars) coyote scats from two urban and two rural studies in Alberta, Canada. (a) The frequency of occurrence (displayed as proportion of scats that contained item) for the diet items that differed significantly between urban and rural coyotes. (b) The proportion of analyzed scats from urban or rural coyotes that contained prey remains such as hair, bones, or teeth (animals) and all other items including anthropogenic food. Error bars show standard deviation.

The analysis of the hair samples was able to support several conclusions. Urban coyotes were more likely to experience poor bodily conditions and disease presence. This was also true for urban coyotes that had behaved in conflict-prone ways. The coyotes that had not caused human-wildlife conflict were less likely to have poor bodily conditions and disease. The urban coyotes did consume more anthropogenic food, but they did consume similar amounts of protein as rural coyotes. Interestingly, this study found that the conflict-prone urban coyotes did not consume significantly more anthropogenic food sources. However, it did find that the conflict-prone urban coyotes did consume significantly less protein when compared to all other sampled coyotes. 

Reflection/Critiques:

Overall, this study was able to confirm that urban coyotes had more diverse diets when compared to rural coyotes. This is largely due to the consumption of additional anthropogenic food sources by urban coyotes. Additionally, conflict-prone urban coyotes consumed similar amounts of anthropogenic food sources. However, these coyotes consumed less protein when compared to the rest of the samples. 

The use of anthropogenic food sources has likely contributed to the increased prevalence of coyotes in urban areas. These additional food sources allow coyotes to be less reliant on any one particular source of food, which increases their likelihood for survival. Anthropogenic food sources are often consistently available, which may cause coyotes to favor them over natural food sources in some scenarios. 

This study aimed to determine if the use of anthropogenic food sources increased the prevalence of human-coyote conflicts in urban areas. According to its findings, the consumption of anthropogenic food sources does not drive these conflicts. Instead, the amount of protein consumption by coyotes was correlated with the likelihood of them exhibiting conflict-prone behavior. The coyotes that were reported as being conflict-prone had significantly less protein in their diets and were more likely to be in poor health. These coyotes likely exhibited conflict-prone behaviors due to their lack of health and bodily vigor. They would likely be more reliant on anthropogenic food sources since they can be easily obtained and are consistently available. 

One critique for this paper is that the scat samples were collected across multiple different years in each location. This is problematic because many influential variables can change over these long time periods. Things such as weather, prey populations, predator populations, human presence, urbanization, and anthropogenic food sources can change significantly across multiple years. This decreases the reliability of the conclusions that were drawn from the analysis of the scat samples. Although it is not completely clear how much this would impact the findings, it certainly has some meaningful impact and should be acknowledged. 

Another critique is that there was a small and unevenly distributed sample size for the coyote hair analysis. According to the paper, only 72 hair samples were analyzed across urban and rural coyotes. Of these samples, 49 were urban and 23 were rural. This is problematic because the overall sample size is small, which decreases the statistical soundness of any conclusions that were drawn from it. Additionally, far more urban samples were analyzed when compared with rural samples. This increases the likelihood of random variation causing inaccurate results for the rural samples since there were so few. This issue could be fixed by increasing the total number of samples and by ensuring that they were evenly distributed between urban and rural coyotes.  

Reference:

Murray, M., Cembrowski, A., Latham, A.D.M., Lukasik, V.M., Pruss, S. and St Clair, C.C. (2015), Greater consumption of protein-poor anthropogenic food by urban relative to rural coyotes increases diet breadth and potential for human–wildlife conflict. Ecography, 38: 1235-1242. https://doi-org.prox.lib.ncsu.edu/10.1111/ecog.01128

Background/Overview: This study was conducted in Italy and aims to understand ways wildlife adapts to urban environments through camera trapping. Italy, like many parts of the world is experiencing rapid urbanization and there is currently a lack of research on the topic. Camera trapping has been shown to be very effective in analyzing animal behavior but has not been used much due to privacy concerns and conflicts with landowners. The study adresses the spatial and temporal changes in wildlife behavior between rural and urban environments. The researchers hypothesized that species will modify behavior to minimize contact with humans, behaviors will change due to changes in vegetation and light pollution levels, predator-prey relationships will change, and spatiotemporal overlaps between species that are well-adapted to urban areas versus species that occasionally use urban areas.

Methods: The study site was located in Firenze, Italy. It was selected due to the amount of artificial surfaces which were mainly mid-rise and low-rise buildings. The researchers placed a grid of 1kmX1km squares and categorized each square by landcover type. These types included cultivated areas, riparian habitats, urban green space, and human settlements. From these categories, 35 locations were chosen as sites for camera traps. The camera traps were in place from March 2023 to May 2024 and they were set to record for 60 seconds for each event. Videos were discarded when species could not be identified. These species were then identified as either urban dwellers or urban visitors. The vegetation cover for each site was also analyzed. The study mentioned that there was a lack of GIS data for the area and much of the data had to be collected directly from the field. The amount of artificial light in each site was determined through the Bortle Index Scale where 1 is no light and 9 contains extreme light pollution. Human presence for each site was determined through the proportion of humans captured through the camera traps. The study addressed privacy concerns through obtaining permits and permission from landowners. There was also a QR code placed at each site with a request form to remove human subject videos and to report vandalism.

Below is a map of the camera trap sites

Results/Discussion: From the camera trap data, there were 7880 recordings with 72 species identified. The majority of the species were humans. The results demonstrated more temporal overlap between predators and prey in urban settings compared to those that were more rural. Humans were found to spatially overlap 100% with all other species recorded. Urban areas contained fewer predators which allowed species such as hares and deer shift from being nocturnal to diurnal. This behavior change was seen in areas that contained urban green spaces. It was also noted that these species were being fed by humans and consuming waste.

Below is a graph of the proportion of species found in camera trap data.

This graph shows the change in species richness across two different variables.

In the discussion, it was determined that wildlife adjust their behaviors to avoid humans while exploiting their resources. It was also found that the increase in light pollution decreased predators’ ability to hunt, thus reducing species richness in urban areas. Suburuban areas were found to contain the highest species richness because these areas included an overlap of urban dweller and urban visitor species. In urban areas, species richness was higher in areas that contained more vegetation and green space. The study came to the conclusion that managing for green space and limiting artificial light disturbances are key in managing urban wildlife. It was then suggested for more studies like these in other cities for a better understanding of urban wildlife.

Reflection/Critique: Overall, I thought this was a very interesting study. I chose this paper because I haven’t read much literature about camera traps and it was also published less than a month ago. I agree with the paper in that there is a need for more camera trap studies in urban areas as they are effective in monitoring wildlife. It would be interesting to see this done locally. My one critique is about the GIS data. I know they said there was a lack of data for the study area but it may have been beneficial in collecting it as a part of their project so they could have something to look back on and so that the study could be replicated easier. I’m sure collecting this type of data is time consuming and they might not have had time to do it. This could be something that could be done in future studies of the same site.

Reference:

Mori, E., Lazzeri, L., Maggioni, M., Viviano, A., Guerri, G., Morabito, M., Martini, S., Dondina, O., Sogliani, D., Scarfò, M., & Ancillotto, L. (2025). Camera‐traps and the city: Spatiotemporal adaptations of wildlife to Urban Environments. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70115

Overview

The article I reviewed is Enhancing pollination supply in an urban ecosystem through landscape modifications by Davis et al. (2017), published in Landscape and Urban Planning. As urban farming becomes more common, understanding how to support pollinators in cities is increasingly important. This study examines whether converting small portions of turf grass into flowering habitat could increase pollinator supply and benefit urban agriculture. The researchers used Chicago, Illinois, as their study area and focused on modeling how different strategies for increasing floral resources, such as planting flowers in city parks, residential yards, or near community gardens, would impact pollination availability. The goal was to help city planners and residents find the most effective way to support pollinators and improve crop yields in urban gardens.

Methods

The researchers first mapped the locations of urban farms, community gardens, and home food gardens using Google Earth imagery. They then collected pollinator specimens from 15 community gardens across Chicago using colored pan traps filled with a detergent solution. Traps were arranged in a 3 x 3 meter grid, spaced one meter apart, with alternating colors, and left out for one daylight cycle each month during July, August, and September 2009.

Specimens were preserved in ethanol and later identified to genus or species. Using this field data, the team validated the InVEST pollination model, which uses land cover, nesting resources, and floral resources to predict pollinator abundance. They then modeled several scenarios simulating the conversion of one to five percent of Chicago’s turf grass to pollinator-friendly flower gardens in different locations, including city parks, private yards, and areas within varying distances of community gardens, to compare how each strategy affected pollination supply across the city.

Results

The study found that augmenting floral resources can increase pollination supply in Chicago, but the most effective strategy depends on the type of urban agriculture. For home gardens, distributing flowers throughout the city was most beneficial, while concentrating flowers near community gardens and urban farms provided the greatest pollination benefits for those larger sites. The InVEST model predicted 46 percent of the variation in native bee richness, indicating that it can reliably identify areas with high or low pollination potential. The results highlight that city parks, forest preserves, and green spaces act as pollination hotspots, whereas downtown and heavily industrialized areas may have lower pollination supply.

Fig. 1. Study area (Chicago, Illinois)with inset of United States.

Fig. 2. Map of pollination supply score and location of sites used for model validation, i.e. sites where bees were collected.

Fig. 4. Effect of landscape modification scenarios on pollination supply scores.

Critiques and Reflection

While this article provides valuable insight into the role of bees in urban pollination and demonstrates how modifying turf grass can enhance pollinator supply for both residential and commercial agriculture, it has some limitations. One notable omission is the lack of consideration for other important insect orders, such as Diptera (flies) and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), which also play critical roles in pollination. Including these groups could provide a more complete understanding of urban pollinator communities.

The study excels in highlighting the underutilized potential of urban green spaces, particularly turf grass and ornamental plantings, and shows how thoughtful landscape modifications can provide both ecological and economic benefits. However, greater attention could be given to the use of native plantings, which not only offer nectar resources but also serve as host plants for pollinators, contributing to the restoration of urban biodiversity and supporting the life cycles of native insects.

Despite these limitations, the article provides strong empirical evidence for the importance of maximizing the ecological value of urban green spaces. It demonstrates that targeted interventions, such as converting portions of turf grass to flower gardens, can meaningfully enhance pollinator populations and improve urban agricultural productivity, making it a valuable resource for both researchers and urban planners.

Reference 

Amélie Y. Davis, Eric V. Lonsdorf, Cliff R. Shierk, Kevin C. Matteson, John R. Taylor, Sarah T. Lovell, Emily S. Minor. (2017). Enhancing pollination supply in an urban ecosystem through landscape modifications, 162, 157-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.02.011